Celebrate the Saturnalia Festival

Celebrate the Saturnalia Festival For how many years shall this festival abide! Never shall age destroy so holy a day! While the hills of Latium remain and father Tiber, while thy Rome stands and the Capitol thou hast restored to the world, it shall continue.- Saturnalia Conspicuous Consumption in Saturnalia as in Christmas Around Christmas, its often difficult to separate commerce from religion. I want to do something different this year. Put up something other than a Christmas tree and creche to which the wooden wise men move nearer each day. Maybe Ill wear a funny peaked cap, buy my friends beeswax candles useful gifts in the event of a power failure, let my son (as Lord of Misrule) plan the day, and just maybe Ill celebrate it early... on December 17, the day of the Saturnalia. The Increasing Period of Saturnalia Celebration This Saturnalia problem may sound familiar. After all, stores put out their Christmas merchandise before Halloween these days. The Saturnalia was originally celebrated in Ancient Rome for only a day, but it was so popular it soon lasted a week, despite Augustus efforts to reduce it to three days, and Caligulas, to five. Like our Christmas, this important holy day (feriae publicae) was for more than fun and games. Saturnalia was a time to honor the god of sowing, Saturn. But again, like our Christmas, it was also a festival day (dies festus) on which a public banquet was prepared. An effigy of the god was probably one of the guests. Saturnalia Was the Best Part of the Roman Year The poet Catullus describes Saturnalia as the best of days. It was a time of celebration, visits to friends, and gift-giving, particularly of wax candles (cerei), and earthenware figurines (sigillaria). The best part of the Saturnalia (for slaves) was the temporary reversal of roles. Masters served meals to their slaves who were permitted the unaccustomed luxuries of leisure and gambling. Clothing was relaxed and included the peaked woollen cap that symbolized the freed slave, which looks an awful lot like Santa Clauss peaked red hat . A member of the familia (family plus slaves) was appointed Saturnalicius princeps, roughly, Lord of Misrule. Celebrate the Saturnalia in the 21st Century Im not alone in my desire to do something... old. Biblioteca Arcana and Nova Roma offer suggestions for turning December 17 into a celebration of Saturnalia. Bringing trees indoors to decorate is a modern custom. Nova Roma suggests decorating outdoor trees with sun and star symbols  and using swathes of greenery over doorways, windows, and on people. But Nova Roma emphasizes that decorations are secondary to revelry, feasting, drinking, merry-making, pranks, and gift-giving of Saturnalia. If you can get your friends and neighbors in the spirit, wrangle a parade permit from your municipality so you can dance (like a Roman) in the street. Biblioteca Arcanas suggestions are for celebrating the religious aspects of the Saturnalia and its two adjoining holidays, the Opalia for Saturns wife, Ops, goddess of plenty, and the Consualia for Consus, god of the storage bin. The site provides a complete ritual with an equipment list, information on preparation, location, timing, the banquet, and the conclusion. Io Saturnalia! Also see: Saturnalia Article

Improving Student Behavior With Behavior Contracts

Improving Student Behavior With Behavior Contracts Behavior contracts that describe appropriate replacement behavior consequences and rewards can really help students succeed, eliminate problem behavior and build a positive relationship with the students teachers. Contracts can eliminate the never-ending battle of wits that begins when a student engages the teacher and the teacher gets hooked. Contracts can focus the student and teacher on the good behavior rather than on the problems. A behavior contract can be a positive intervention to avoid the need to write a Behavior Intervention Plan. If a childs behavior merits a check in the Special Considerations section of the IEP, federal law requires that you conduct a Functional Behavioral Analysis and write a Behavior Intervention Plan.  If another intervention can prevent the behavior from getting out of control, you can avoid a lot of work as well as possibly needing to call an additional IEP team meeting. What Is a Behavior Contract? A behavior contract is an agreement between a student, their parent and the teacher. It spells out the expected behavior, the unacceptable behavior, the benefits (or rewards) for improving behavior and the consequence for failing to improve behavior. This contract should be worked out with the parent and the child and is most effective if the parent reinforces the appropriate behavior, rather than the teacher. Accountability is an important part of the success of a behavior contract. The components: Participants: Parent, Teacher, and Student. If both parents participate in the conference, more power to them! It is clearly an indication that they will support your effort. If you are in a middle school and other teachers besides the special educator will be enforcing the plan, they all need to sign off on the contract. Finally, the student should be consulted, especially about the rewards. What is a fitting reward for proving that they can improve their school behavior?The Behavior: Describing the behavior negatively (stop hitting, stop speaking out of turn, stop swearing) will focus on the behavior that you want to extinguish. You need to be sure that you are describing the replacement behavior, the behavior you want to see in its place. You want to be rewarding the student for the behavior that you want to see, rather than punishing the behavior you do not want to see. Research has proven conclusively that punishment doesnt work: it makes a behavior disappear temporarily, but th e minute the punisher leaves, the behavior will reappear. It is important that the replacement behavior serves the same function as the behavior you with to eliminate. Raising your hand doesnt replace calling out if the function of calling out is to get attention from peers. You need to find a behavior that will also provide appropriate attention. Data collection: How will you record when wanted or unwanted behavior has occurred? You may have a student self-monitoring protocol, or even a teacher checklist or teacher record sheet. Often it can be as simple as a three by five-inch note card taped to the desk, where the teacher can place a star or a check for appropriate behavior.The Reward: You need to be sure that you establish both the reward and the threshold for getting the reward. How many inappropriate behaviors are allowed and yet the student can still earn the reward? How long does the student need to exhibit the behavior before the student earns the reward? What if the student backslides? Does he or she still get to keep credit for the success that preceded it?Consequences: If the behavior you are targeting is problematic and can potentially inhibit the success not only of the student in question, but for the whole class, it needs to have consequences. The consequences also need to kick in when a certain threshold is me t. In most cases, the success of exhibiting the replacement behavior, along with the praise and positive emphasis that should accompany the success, it shouldnt need to be instituted. Still, if a behavior disrupts the classroom and puts other children at risk, the consequence needs to be one that returns peace to the classroom and makes the other children safe. It may be to remove the child from the room, or move the child to the quiet corner. Signatures: Get everyones signature. Make a big deal about it, and be sure that you keep a copy of the contract handy, so you can refer to it when you want to either motivate or redirect the student. Instituting Your Contract Be sure that everything is in place before you begin the contract. How will the parents be informed and how often? Daily? Weekly? How will parents be informed of a bad day? How will you know for sure that the report has been seen? What is the consequence if the reporting form is not returned? A call to Mom? Celebrate Success! Be sure to let the student know when you are pleased when they are having success with their contract. I find that often the first few days are very successful, and it usually takes a few days before the there is any backsliding. Success feeds success. So be sure to let your student how happy you are when they do succeed.

Contrasts between Sanders's definition of pornography with the Supreme Essay

Contrasts between Sanders's definition of pornography with the Supreme court's definition - Essay Example On the other hand, the opponents have stood firm to criticize it with the argument that freedom of expression is limited and is not guaranteed on aspects that ruin people’s morality. Some feminists have also criticised it on grounds of propagating gender violence and stereotyping. Sanders’ definition of pornography is vastly different from the Supreme Court’s definition.   Sanders defines pornography as turning of the human body into a commodity that can be sold and be used in transactions like other goods in the market. He further mentions that the act separates the body from the self (Sanders105). The definition of obscenity according to the United States laws emanates from Hicklin standard that was later embraced by the Supreme Court. In the case, Rosen versus United States, it became apparent that the Supreme Court had adopted the definition of obscenity to comprise any material that has potential to corrupt minds that are open to such immoral influences, i t further bound the individual whose hands the material may be found (Blue 79). The law depicted some inconsistencies with Sanders’ definition. The test was found inappropriate and the Supreme Court had to adopt the Roth test for obscenity. The Roth test was a slight milestone to the definition of pornography. Despite the effort, no harmony is evident with the sanders’ definition. ... The Supreme Court has no concrete definition of pornography since it does not have a law that limits on its own. However, the justice system has adopted the law of obscenity. This law leaves many gray areas that provide an enabling environment for pornography in the society. Justice Stewart is well remembered for his stand on obscenity when he reckoned that â€Å"I know it when I see it† (Blue 80). This brings much controversy since different individuals will exhibit different opinions, therefore lacking a standardised way of dealing with such crimes. Pornography issues have been dealt with a lot of disparity. Sander makes it clear that the act of engaging in trade with human bodies has no bounds. In 1968, the Supreme Court suspended the viewing of sexual content by children but upheld their viewing by adults. In a landmark ruling made in the case of Butler versus Michigan in1957, it was established that the adults should not be stooped too low and be categorised similarly as children ( National Academies 6). This type of variable obscenity creates not only amoral crisis but also a constitutional crisis, since the bill of rights gives an equal regard for all citizens. The major setback to such a ruling is the inability to distinguish the consumer of the sexual content given that children can access the same media that is used by adults. The thoughts raised by Sanders in his definition can be universally accepted. This is because they encourage morality, respect for human rights and dignity as well as the need to protect self from being tarnished by the shameful acts of pornography. In real terms, the focus of the supreme on promoting responsible social behaviour is limited and very inconsistent. The fact that the Supreme Court has a leeway to

Social and Family Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Social and Family Law - Essay Example Secondly, she should be aware of the fact that a valid consent is that which is informed and voluntary and that the person who is consenting should have the capacity to make such a decision (Lynch, 2010, p. 70). More importantly, she should be aware that in situations where children are involved in medical treatment, consent from the parent is usually required as a matter of parental responsibility. As a legal concept, Jackson (2009, p. 105) argues that parental responsibility gives her the responsibilities, rights, and authority over her children. As such, treatment of Alex through a wrist operation will greatly depend on her consent to treatment. As has been noted, Alex’s mother is accorded with parental responsibility in regard to the treatment of her son. Additionally, it has been noted that for consent to be valid it has to be informed and voluntary. Therefore, Alex’s mother has the right to be informed about Alex’s condition and right to access Alex’ s health records in order to make the decision on consent to his treatment. In regard to Brad’s situation, Mental Health Act 1983 adequately addresses the issues arising from the situation. Brad should know that the police have proper authority to take him to the hospital. This is because the Act provides that a person diagnosed with a mental illness should be detained in police custody or in hospital so that their disorder can be assessed and treated. Brad was admitted to the hospital as a compulsory patient because he needed assessment and care and to protect their safety or health and that of the public (Department of Health, 2011). Since Brad has refused to take the tablets, the Act the hospital staff can give him an injection against his will. The Act provides that in as much as the interests of the patient should be safeguarded, the patient can be treated against his wish in order to meet their health and safety needs. However, it is important to note that some types of treatment need to be approved by an independent doctor before being administered. Therefore, unless the administration of treatment through injection is an emergency because Brad has refused to take tablets, it should not be administered against his wish until it is approved by an independent doctor. According to Department of Health (2011), the Act stipulates that the hospital should give Brad information about his rights as a compulsory patient. This is essential in facilitating the effectiveness of the assessment and treatment process. Furthermore, the Act allows hospital to use his medical records for the purposes of their annual record validation. However, the details of the record should not be made public against his wish. Brad can look at his own medical records through the help of the nearest relative. The Act has a provision that gives the nearest relative the right to receive written information concerning the detention of the patient. Family Law Task A2. The contract of Marriage and the contract of Civil Partnership are governed by the Marriage Act 1994 and Civil Partnership Act 2004 respectively. These 2 types of contracts differ from the other types of contracts especially in regard to who may enter the contract, where it may take place, and the actual wording of the contract (Edge & Corrywright, 2011, p. 22). However, it should be noted that the legislation that govern these 2 types of co

Reaction Paper- Asian and Global Crisis Essay Example for Free

Reaction Paper- Asian and Global Crisis Essay Reaction Paper Asian and Global Crisis During the Asian and Global Crisis many of the criticisms are against accounting and accountants. In my further readings, I’ve read that during the Asian Crisis in 1997, where affected countries suffered severe setbacks in their economies and where development stagnated, the accountancy profession, including its standards, policies and levels of information disclosures, had played a role in the start of the crisis, and perhaps had even worsened it. Moreover, I’ve also read that during both crises, the Asian Crisis and Global Crisis in 2008, insufficient clarity in what was being measured, the wrong things being measured or things being measured inappropriately, lack of standards, inadequate transparency and poor ethical conduct, in short, poor corporate governance is the main breadth and depth of the crises. As a future accountant, what will I do after all the doubts and criticisms against the profession? In my opinion, sufficient clarity on what to measure, measuring things appropriately, following the applicable standards, adequate transparency and good ethical conduct are the things that I should carry out. It should be clarified in the accountant on what is the thing that he/she should measure. If I’m the accountant I should be knowledgeable on the nature and I should have understood necessary facts about the account when doing measurement or on examining the reasonableness of the measurement method used by the management. In addition, in measuring risks like financial risk, I should use a valid and reliable risk measurement technique because the information that I’ll be giving will be the basis for the management’s decision-making. If I have measured the things incorrectly or a wrong technique has been used, it could be misleading to the decision-making of the management and may cause chaos in the future to the company. In an accounting perspective, applicable generally accepted accounting standards should be used in the accounts of the financials of the company. Strict compliance should be observed so that transactions are properly recorded, summarized, classified and accounted for. Adequate disclosures should also be done. In the auditing perspective, as an auditor, auditing the company should be in accordance with the applicable generally accepted auditing standards. The auditor should be independent so that the opinion will be unbiased. I would like to emphasize that in compliance with the generally accepted auditing standards, the auditor should always take into consideration if the company provided adequate disclosures. Disclosure on significant matters is really important for the users who don’t have enough information regarding the matter will be informed. However, I have read in an article that there is also a lack of standards that also caused the hitch on crises. Regarding the lack of standards, I think it is already in the hands of the appropriate groups with authorities. Accountants need to refocus the structuring of financial transactions so that they comply with generally accepted accounting principles and that the economic substance of financial transactions is communicated. More accountability and ethical awareness needs to be instilled in the individuals who deceitfully structure financial transactions. Regulatory bodies need to ensure more transparency by closing loopholes and better enforcement of accounting standards. Audit committees, need to be sure that a company is communicating the true economic reality of the financial transactions and financial position of the business entity. Off-balance-sheet financing is one of the most significant ways, among others, that the user of financial statements can be misled. It is time for regulatory bodies to eliminate overly rules-based standards, clearly state the economic objective of each standard, and require firms to disclose the economic motivations for the accounting practices they adopt. While making judgment accountants need to be cautious and prudent. Accounting transactions and other events are sometimes uncertain but in order to be relevant it should be reported in time. Accountants have to make estimates requiring judgment to counter the uncertainty. Prudence is a key accounting principle which makes sure that assets and income are not overstated and liabilities and expenses are not understated. The bottom-line for all of these is to have good corporate governance. As defined by Robert M. Bushman, corporate governance structures serve: 1) to ensure that minority shareholders receive reliable information about the value of firms and that a company’s managers and large shareholders do not cheat them out of the value of their investments, and 2) to motivate managers to maximize firm value instead of pursuing personal objectives. I believe that all of the things I have mentioned are some of the keys that can help me as a future accountant in dealing the reality and to get out of all the doubts against the accounting profession.

Being Nice to Strangers :: Free Essay Writer

Being Nice to Strangers Throughout this literature class we have been reading stories of love & war, history & heroes, and Gods & Goddesses. This literature that has been introduced to us is about much more than that. It is about life. Everyday life. Our lives. If you understand the literature as it is meant to be understood, then you would be able to put yourself in the characters’ shoes. You would be able to relate with the choices they have to make, the feelings they feel, and the burden of society they have gone through. You are able to do so because these literature works are masterpieces, and masterpieces last forever. They aren’t just stories told only for the times when they were written, they are for all times: past and present. Even if it does take an educated person like Dr. Fajardo-Acosta to get the deepest meaning across to us, once you understand it, everything clicks. You think to yourself, "That’s like the situation I went through last week," or "That’s how I feel." And you begin to realize that these works pertain to you and everyone else. You realize that you aren’t the only one that has gone through something or that feels a certain way. Than you start to crave more. You want to learn, read, and understand more. I believe that deep down all human beings are good. Their ways or thoughts may be tainted but who are we to judge. That concept of judging others is very important in literature. Of course, you can’t possibly stop all judgmental thoughts but the key is to limit them and to realize when you are having these thoughts. We as humans are critical people of ourselves and of others. They way we criticize depends on what we have gone through so far in our lives. We think the way we do and perceive others by what has happened to us, whether it was good or bad. We are all conditioned to think the way we do, whether it is the religion you were born into or the experiences that you went through as a child that are stored deep down inside. Whatever it may be and whether you know it or not, they affect you and the way you think, act, and see other human beings. Let’s take Oedipus for example. As a child he was pretty much tortured and thrown into the woods to die.

Dementia and Alzheimer’s Disease Essay

Dementia is a set of conditions, medically diagnosed, and leading to recognized and measurable behavioral changes in an individual. Dementia of the Alzheimer’s type is a chronic cognitive disorder that is manifested in impairment of either short-term or long-term memory or even both. It has a slow onset and its etiology is unknown, although many speculate that genetics may play a role as well as the decrease in acetylcholine which is a neurotransmitter that is used to carry electrical impulses from the axon of one cell to the dendrite of another. The number of neurotransmitters have been found in the brain tissue of patients with dementia and Alzheimer’s. Alzheimer’s disease accounts for about 70% of dementia cases. Over 4 million people are currently diagnosed as having Alzheimer’s disease. There is not a specific age of onset although it usually occurs in late adulthood. People are living longer now and for this reason, the number of Alzheimer’s cases is on the rise. It is a neurological disorder of the brain that can cause overwhelming anxiety for both those affected and family members of those affected. In Alzheimer’s disease, normal brain tissue is replaced by neuritic plaques which basically just take up space. These brain lesions will inevitably cause death. Various bodily functions begin to be altered depending on the part of the brain affected. Usually as the disease progresses, bladder control will be lost as well as the ability to swallow. The brain lesions will often times trigger the onset of seizures. Cognitive symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease include alteration in language, ability to solve problems, and even the inability to make appropriate decisions. This may often times be the most difficult symptom for nurses and care providers to deal with legally. In the long run, patients will experience complete memory loss and aphasia. Non-cognitive changes include unexplained movements, urinary and fecal incontinence, aggression, and/or agitation. There is currently no known therapeutic treatment that can stop the progression of dementia and Alzheimer’s disease. In caring for the Alzheimer’s patient, the staff must remember to refer to the patient by name and not by calling them â€Å"sweetie† or â€Å"honey†. A patient has a right to maintain dignity. If dementia is diagnosed early enough, it is advisable for the patient to designate a decision-maker which will help designate that patient’s assets. Quality of life in patients with dementia  is a big ethical topic that becomes very important in the late stages of dementia. During late stage dementia, ability to express pain or discomfort may be altered. In these patients verbal references to pain are absent, not because they’re not experiencing any pain but because they may not know how to express the degree of pain that they are experiencing. Because of this, regular administration of pain medications are often prescribed (Refer to article #1: discomfort protocol). Oftentimes, family members find themselves in a bind between providing care until the very end of life or requesting the cessation of life-sustaining measures (Refer to article #2: euthanasia and assisted suicide). Assessment should include family history, social history, memory (long-term and short-term),behavioral responses such as wandering, suicide risks, appearance, speech, and hallucinations. Oftentimes, a family member is needed to assist with subjective data as the patient may not remember some things. Sometimes, out of frustration, a person with Alzheimer’s will fabricate stories or details. This is believed to be a defense mechanism. They are in denial about having loss of memory. Nursing diagnoses include: -altered thought processes related to dementia. -impaired physical mobility. -alteration in nutrition related to neurological deficits in swallowing. -self care deficit. Goals should include ability to comply with treatment plan and ability to satisfy self-care requirements. Interventions for the Alzheimer’s patient focus on keeping the patient comfortable, nourished, and hydrated. Oftentimes, a patient will request a priest, rabbi, or minister to visit and offer religious support. In late stage Dementia and Alzheimer’s disease, comfort is usually one of the primary goals of the care team, since death is  inevitable (refer to article #3: music and dementia). It is important to speak to these patients slowly and clearly. Many times they are able understand what is being said when spoken to at a slower pace. In summary, Alzheimer’s Disease and Dementia are often secondary diagnoses and because of this, they are often overlooked in the management of care and proper treatment of patients with other diagnoses. Alzheimer’s Disease does not discriminate. Nobody asks to have Alzheimer’s so it is important to remember that patients do not always act out the way they want to. Sometimes they just can’t help it.

CHEM Lab

Another source of error is that possibly the ice and salt did not get to a low enough temperature, but again I would think this would alter the results giving a higher temperature instead of a lower one. Something that would give too low a temperature is if the thermometer bulb was directly on the test tube, and the temperature decreased because of the ice/salt mixture instead of the alcohol/water mixture. This is what probably happened in my experiment. Another thing that would cause the temperature to be too low is contamination in the alcohol, contributing more solute to the solution than expected. Using table salt and road salt, how would you design an experiment to determine which of these affected the boiling point of water the most? Which substance do you expect will affect it the most and why? Procedure: Weight out 1 g of salt and put it in ml of water in a test tube. Put a thermometer in and put the test tube over a Bunsen burner, recording the temperature till it boils. Ass uming equal masses (1 g each) of salt, the table salt should affect it more because sodium is smaller than calcium and there would be more moles of table salt in g than there would be of road salt.Conclusion: Freezing point depression occurs when a solute is dissolved in a solvent. The solute makes the freezing point of the solvent decrease. How much the freezing point decreases depends on the immolate of the solute. The higher the immolate, the more the freezing point will decrease. The solute molecules interfere with the solvent freezing, and so the solution will have to get colder to freeze than the pure substance would. There was a large percent error in this experiment. There were a number of things the test tube and got too cold from the ice/salt mixture on the outside of the test be.Some other sources of error are measuring the alcohol or the water incorrectly. The graduated cylinder is not very accurate when measuring small amounts such as 2 ml. Some of the alcohol could hav e evaporated during the experiment since it is so volatile. There could have been some contamination in the alcohol, such as other solutes, that would contribute to the decrease in freezing point. I used 91% spoilsport alcohol instead of 70%, and this may be a cause of error as well. The formula holds only for relatively small amounts of solute, and maybe the 91% was too much.This experiment did not turn out as well as I had hoped. Perhaps if there were a way to keep the thermometer off of the test tube itself so that it doesn't get so cold, that would be a better procedure. Perhaps if you could cork the test tube (if it were a large enough one to fit a cork in it) with a hole for the thermometer, then the cork would hold the thermometer in the solution instead of having it touch the sides of the test tube. No matter the numerical results of the experiment, I did learn a lot more about freezing point depression than I had known previously. That aspect of the experiment was successfu l.

The Berlin Conference to Divide Africa

The Berlin Conference to Divide Africa The Berlin Conference was described by Harm J. de Bli in Geography: Realms, Regions, and Concepts: The Berlin Conference was Africas undoing in more ways than one. The colonial powers superimposed their domains on the African continent. By the time independence returned to Africa in 1950, the realm had acquired a legacy of political fragmentation that could neither be eliminated nor made to operate satisfactorily. Purpose of the Berlin Conference In 1884, at the request of Portugal, German chancellor Otto von Bismark called together the major western powers of the world to negotiate questions and end confusion over the control of Africa. Bismark appreciated the opportunity to expand Germanys sphere of influence over Africa and hoped to force Germanys rivals to struggle with one another for territory. At the time of the conference, 80 percent of Africa remained under traditional and local control. What ultimately resulted was a hodgepodge of geometric boundaries that divided Africa into 50 irregular countries. This new map of the continent was superimposed over 1,000 indigenous cultures and regions of Africa. The new countries lacked rhyme or reason and divided coherent groups of people and merged together disparate groups who really did not get along. ThoughtCo / Adrian Mangel Countries Represented at the Berlin Conference Fourteen countries were represented by a plethora of ambassadors when the conference opened in Berlin on November 15, 1884. The countries represented at the time included Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Russia, Spain, Sweden-Norway (unified from 1814 to 1905), Turkey, and the United States of America. Of these 14 nations, France, Germany, Great Britain, and Portugal were the major players in the conference, controlling most of colonial Africa at the time. Berlin Conference Tasks The initial task of the conference was to agree that the Congo River and Niger River mouths and basins would be considered neutral and open to trade. Despite its neutrality, part of the Congo Basin became a personal kingdom for Belgiums King Leopold II. Under his rule, over half of the regions population died. At the time of the conference, only the coastal areas of Africa were colonized by the European powers. At the Berlin Conference, the European colonial powers scrambled to gain control over the interior of the continent. The conference lasted until February 26, 1885 - a three-month period where colonial powers haggled over geometric boundaries in the interior of the continent, disregarding the cultural and linguistic boundaries already established by the indigenous African population. Following the conference, the give and take continued. By 1914, the conference participants had fully divided Africa among themselves into 50 countries. Major colonial holdings included: Great Britain desired a Cape-to-Cairo collection of colonies and almost succeeded through their control of Egypt, Sudan (Anglo-Egyptian Sudan), Uganda, Kenya (British East Africa), South Africa, and Zambia, Zimbabwe (Rhodesia), and Botswana. The British also controlled Nigeria and Ghana (Gold Coast).France took much of western Africa, from Mauritania to Chad (French West Africa), as well as Gabon and the Republic of Congo (French Equatorial Africa).Belgium and King Leopold II controlled the Democratic Republic of Congo (Belgian Congo).Portugal took Mozambique in the east and Angola in the west.Italys holdings were Somalia (Italian Somaliland) and a portion of Ethiopia.Germany took Namibia (German Southwest Africa) and Tanzania (German East Africa).Spain claimed the smallest territory, which was Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni). Source De Bli, Harm J. Geography: Realms, Regions, and Concepts. Peter O. Muller, Jan Nijman, 16th Edition, Wiley, November 25, 2013.

Understanding Mayan Human Sacrifice

Understanding Mayan Human Sacrifice Why did the Maya perform human sacrifices? That the Mayan people practiced human sacrifice is not in doubt, but providing motives is part speculation. The word sacrifice is from the Latin and it is associated with the word sacred- human sacrifices, like many other rituals in the Maya and other civilizations, were part of a sacred ritual, an act of appeasing or paying homage to the gods. Grappling With the World Like all human societies, the Maya grappled with uncertainty in the world, erratic weather patterns which brought drought and storms, the anger and violence of enemies, the occurrence of disease, and the inevitability of death. Their pantheon of gods provided some perceived control over their world, but they needed to communicate with those gods and to perform deeds showing that they were worthy of good luck and good weather. The Maya performed human sacrifices during particular societal events. Human sacrifices were conducted at specific festivals in their annual calendar, at times of crisis, at dedications of buildings, at the ends or beginnings of warfare, at the accession to the throne of a new ruler, and at the time of that rulers death. Sacrifices at each of these events likely had different meanings to the people who conducted the sacrifices. Valuing Life The Maya valued life highly, and according to their religion, there was an afterlife so human sacrifice of people they cared for- such as children- was not perceived as murder but rather placing that individuals life into the hands of the deities. Even so, the highest cost to an individual was to lose their children thus child sacrifice was a truly holy act, conducted at times of crisis or times of new beginnings. At times of war and at rulers accessions, human sacrifices may have had a political meaning in that the ruler was indicating his ability to control others. Scholars have suggested that public sacrifice of captives was to display that ability and to reassure the people that he was doing everything he could to stay in communication with the gods. However, Inomata (2016) has suggested that the Maya may never have evaluated or discussed the legitimacy of a ruler: sacrifice was simply an expected part of the accession. Other Sacrifices Maya priests and rulers also made personal sacrifice, using obsidian knives, stingray spines, and knotted cords to draw blood from their own bodies as offerings to gods. If a ruler lost a battle, he himself was tortured and sacrificed. Luxury goods and other items were placed in sacred locations such as the Great Cenote at Chichen Itza and in rulers burials along with the human sacrifices. When people in modern societies try to come up with the purpose of human sacrifice in the past, we are prone to put our own concepts about how people think about themselves as individuals and members of society, how authority is established in our world, and how much control we believe our gods have over the world. It makes it difficult if not impossible to parse out what the reality might have been for the Maya, but no less fascinating for us to learn about ourselves in the process. Sources: Ardren T. 2011. Empowered Children in Classic Maya Sacrificial Rites. Childhood in the Past 4(1):133-145.Inomata T. 2016. Theories of Power and Legitimacy in Archaeological Contexts: The Emergent Regime of Power at the Formative Maya Community of Ceibal, Guatemala. Political Strategies in Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. Boulder: University Press of Colorado. p 37-60.Pà ©rez de Heredia Puente EJ. 2008. Chen K’u: The Ceramic of the Sacred Cenote at Chichà ©n Itz. Tulane, Louisiana: Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies, Inc. (FAMSI).

Epidemiology Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Epidemiology - Research Proposal Example The beginning issue of a case-control study is topics with the infection or status under study (cases). The cases' annals of exposure or other characteristics, or both, former to onset of the infection, is noted through interview and occasionally via notes and other sources. A evaluation assembly comprising of persons without the infection under study (controls) are assembled, and their past annals is noted in the identical way as for the cases. The reason of the command assembly is to supply an approximate of the frequency and allowance of exposure in topics in the community without the infection being studied. Whereas the cohort study is worried with frequency of infection in revealed and non-exposed persons, the case-control study is worried with the frequency and allowance of exposure in topics with a exact infection (cases) and persons without the infection (controls). In case-control investigations, facts and numbers are not accessible to assess the incidence rate of the infection being investigated, and the genuine relation risk will not be determined. The assess of association between exposure and incident of infection in case-control investigations is the so-called odds ratio: the ratio of odds of exposure in unhealthy topics to the odds of exposure in the non-diseased. ... Advantages: 1. Allow entire data on the subject's exposure, encompassing value command of facts and numbers, and know-how thereafter. 2. Provide a clear temporal sequence of exposure and disease. 3. Give an opening to study multiple conclusions associated to a exact exposure. 4. Permit assessment of incidence rates (absolute risk) as well as relation risk. 5. Methodology and outcomes are effortlessly appreciated by non-epidemiologists. 6. Enable the study of somewhat uncommon exposures. Disadvantages 1. Not matched for the study of uncommon infections because a large number of topics is required. 2. Not matched when the time between exposure and infection manifestation is very long, whereas this can be overwhelm in chronicled cohort studies. 3. Exposure patterns, for demonstration the composition of oral contraceptives, may change throughout the course of the study and make the outcomes irrelevant. 4. Maintaining high rates of follow-up can be difficult. 5. Expensive to convey out because a large number of topics is generally required. 6. Baseline facts and numbers may be sparse because the large number of topics does not permit for long interviews. Case-control studies Advantages 1. Permit the study of uncommon diseases. 2. Permit the study of infections with long latency between exposure and manifestation. 3. Can be commenced and undertook over somewhat short time periods. 4. Relatively cheap as contrasted to cohort studies. 5. Can study multiple promise determinants of disease. Disadvantages 1. Information on exposure and past annals is mainly founded on interview and may be subject to recall bias. 2. Validation of data on exposure is tough, or incomplete, or even